This is a list of all of the oldest extant universities in the world. To be listed on this page, an educational institution must satisfy the definition of a university A university is an institution of higher education and research, which grants academic degrees in a variety of subjects. A university provides both undergraduate education and postgraduate education. The word university is derived from the Latin universitas magistrorum et scholarium, roughly meaning "community of teachers and scholars" at the time of founding; it must have been founded before 1500 or be the oldest university in a region; and it must have been operational without a significant interruption ever since. The word university is derived from the Latin Latin is an Italic language historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Through the Roman conquest, Latin spread throughout the Mediterranean and a large part of Europe. Romance languages such as Italian, French, Catalan, Romanian, Spanish, and Portuguese are descended from Latin, while many others, especially European languages, including universitas magistrorum et scholarium, roughly meaning "community of teachers and scholars" in Latin countries such as France.

Because the awarding of academic degrees A degree is any of a wide range of status levels conferred by institutions of higher education, such as universities, normally as the result of successfully completing a program of study for advanced studies was historically most prevalent in Europe Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally divided from Asia to its east by the water divide of the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian Sea, and by the Caucasus Mountains to the southeast. Europe is washed upon to the north by the Arctic Ocean and and the Middle East The Middle East is a region that spans southwestern Asia, southeastern Europe and northeastern Africa. It has no clear boundaries, often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. The term "Middle East" was popularized around 1900 in the United Kingdom. The corresponding adjective to Middle East is Middle-Eastern and the, and the modern definition of a university includes the ability to grant degrees, most of the oldest institutions of higher learning that have always satisfied the modern definition were either European or Near Eastern Near East today is an ambiguous term that covers different countries for archeologists and historians, on one hand, and for political scientists, economists, and journalists, on the other. The term originally applied to the Balkan states in Southeast Europe, but now it generally describes the countries of Southwest Asia between the Mediterranean.[1][2] If, however, the definition is broadened and changed today to include ancient institutions that did not originally grant degrees but now do, then this list would expand significantly to include many other institutions from both Europe and other parts of the world. For instance, Nanjing University Nanjing University is a national comprehensive university located in Nanjing, an ancient capital of China. It is regarded as one of the best and most selective universities in China. Its history dates back to the first year of Yong'an reign (258 CE), making it one of the oldest higher learning institutions in the world. It became a modern Chinese (Imperial Nanjing Institute), which exists to this day, founded in 258 in China China has one of the world's oldest and continuous civilizations, consisting of states and cultures dating back more than six millennia.[citation needed] It has the world's longest continuously used written language system,[citation needed] and is viewed as the source of many major inventions. Historically, China's cultural sphere has extended, as well as many other newly defined universities. However, they did not award degrees in the strictest sense, instead, it prepared students for standardized exams that would bestow upon them a rank in the scholar-gentry Scholar-bureaucrats or scholar-officials were civil servants appointed by the emperor of China to perform day-to-day governance from the Sui Dynasty to the end of the Qing Dynasty in 1912, China's last imperial dynasty. These officials mostly came from the well-educated men known as the scholar-gentry. These men had earned academic degrees by.

Regarding the precise definition of the original Latin word university A university is an institution of higher education and research, which grants academic degrees in a variety of subjects. A university provides both undergraduate education and postgraduate education. The word university is derived from the Latin universitas magistrorum et scholarium, roughly meaning "community of teachers and scholars", which includes the ability to grant degrees in a wide range of fields, the categorization of many of the oldest learning institutions as de facto De facto is a Latin expression that means "concerning fact". In law, it is meant to mean "in practice but not necessarily ordained by law" or "in practice or actuality, but without being officially established". It is commonly used in contrast to de jure when referring to matters of law, governance, or technique (such ancient universities in continuous operation could be controversial and problematic. For example, if the definition were broadened to include ancient institutions that did not originally grant degrees, were strictly religious schools for centuries or vanished without trace for long periods of time, then such categorization may agree with specific points of view which are not widely accepted.

Contents

Western universities founded before 1500

Year Contemporary location Current location Name Notes
1088 Kingdom of Italy The Kingdom of Italy was a creation of the Lombards who invaded the Italian peninsula, following the destruction of the Ostrogothic Kingdom, in 568. The Lombard kingdom proved to be more stable than its Ostrogothic predecessor, but in 774, on the pretext of defending the Papacy, the Franks, led by Charlemagne, conquered the Lombard kingdom. They Bologna Bologna is the capital city of Emilia-Romagna, in the Po Valley (Pianura Padana in Italian) of northern Italy. The city lies between the Po River and the Apennine Mountains, more specifically, between the Reno River and the Savena River, Italy Italy /ˈɪtəli/ (Italian: Italia), officially the Italian Republic (Italian: Repubblica Italiana), is a country located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe and on the two largest islands in the Mediterranean Sea, Sicily and Sardinia. Italy shares its northern, Alpine boundary with France, Switzerland, Austria and Slovenia. The University of Bologna The University of Bologna is the oldest continually operating degree-granting university in the world, the word 'university' being first used by this institution at its foundation. The true date of its founding is uncertain, but believed by most accounts to have been 1088. Since 2000, the University's motto has been Alma mater studiorum (Latin for The first university, the term 'university' being coined at its foundation. [1] [2]
1150 Kingdom of France France in the Middle Ages covers an area roughly corresponding to modern day France, from the death of Charlemagne in 814 to the middle of the 15th century. The Middle Ages in France were marked by Paris Paris (pronounced /ˈpærɪs/ or /ˈpɛrəs/ in English; [paʁi] in French) is the capital of France and the country's largest city. It is situated on the river Seine, in northern France, at the heart of the Île-de-France region (also known as the "Paris Region"; French: Région parisienne). The city of Paris, within its limits largely, France France (pronounced /ˈfræns/ or /ˈfrɑːns/; French: [fʁɑ̃s]), officially the French Republic (French: République française, pronounced: [ʁepyblik fʁɑ̃sɛz]), is a country located in Western Europe, with several overseas islands and territories located on other continents. Metropolitan France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the University of Paris The historic University of Paris first appeared in the 12th century. In 1970 it was reorganized as 13 autonomous universities (University of Paris I–XIII). The university is often referred to as the Sorbonne or La Sorbonne after the collegiate institution (Collège de Sorbonne) founded about 1257 by Robert de Sorbon. The university as such was Exact date uncertain, founded before 1150. Teaching suspended in 1229. Split into 13 universities in 1970.
1167 Kingdom of England The history of England did not begin until the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons, when the partition of Britain into several countries largely began. It was the history of Britain that began in the prehistoric during which time Stonehenge was erected. At the height of the Roman Empire, Britannia was under the rule of the Romans. Their rule lasted until Oxford Oxford (pronounced /ˈɒksfərd/ ) is a city, and the county town of Oxfordshire, in South East England. The city has a population of just under 165,000, with 151,000 living within the district boundary. The rivers Cherwell and Thames run through Oxford and meet south of the city centre. For a distance of some 10 miles (16 km) along the river, in, England England /ˈɪŋɡlənd/ is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population, while its mainland territory occupies most of the southern two-thirds of the island of Great Britain. England is bordered by Scotland to the north, Wales to the west and the North Sea, Irish Sea, Celtic Sea,, UK The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is a sovereign state located off the northwestern coast of continental Europe. It is an island country, spanning an archipelago including Great Britain, the northeastern part of Ireland, and many small islands. Northern Ireland is the only part of the UK with a land border, sharing it with University of Oxford The University of Oxford , located in the City of Oxford, Oxfordshire, Great Britain, is the oldest university in the English-speaking world. It is also regarded as one of the world's leading academic institutions and best university in the UK according to all recent League tables of British universities. The name is sometimes abbreviated as Oxon Exact date uncertain, teaching existed since 1096, founded before 1167 ("There is no clear date of foundation, but teaching existed at Oxford in some form in 1096 and developed rapidly from 1167, when Henry II Henry II, called Curtmantle ruled as King of England (1154–1189), Count of Anjou, Duke of Normandy, Duke of Aquitaine, Duke of Gascony, Count of Nantes, Lord of Ireland and, at various times, controlled parts of Wales, Scotland and western France. Henry was the first of the House of Plantagenet to rule England and was the great-grandson of banned English students from attending the University of Paris."[3]). Teaching suspended in 1209 (due to town execution of two scholars) and 1355 (due to the St. Scholastica riot The St Scholastica Day riot of February 10, 1355, is one of the most notorious events in the history of Oxford). All Souls College and University College have repeatedly claimed that they owns documents proving that teaching in Oxford started in the year 825, but these documents have never seen the public light (allegedly, John Speed John Speed was a historian, now best remembered as the cartographer whose maps of English counties are often found framed in homes throughout the United Kingdom dated his famous 1605 Oxford maps based in these documents).
1209 Kingdom of England The history of England did not begin until the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons, when the partition of Britain into several countries largely began. It was the history of Britain that began in the prehistoric during which time Stonehenge was erected. At the height of the Roman Empire, Britannia was under the rule of the Romans. Their rule lasted until Cambridge The city of Cambridge (pronounced /ˈkeɪmbrɪdʒ/ (KAYM-bridj)) is a university town and the administrative centre of the county of Cambridgeshire, England. It lies in East Anglia about 50 miles (80 km) north of London. It is also at the heart of the high-technology centre known as Silicon Fen, England England /ˈɪŋɡlənd/ is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population, while its mainland territory occupies most of the southern two-thirds of the island of Great Britain. England is bordered by Scotland to the north, Wales to the west and the North Sea, Irish Sea, Celtic Sea,, UK The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is a sovereign state located off the northwestern coast of continental Europe. It is an island country, spanning an archipelago including Great Britain, the northeastern part of Ireland, and many small islands. Northern Ireland is the only part of the UK with a land border, sharing it with University of Cambridge The University of Cambridge , located in Cambridge, England, is the second oldest university in the English-speaking world. The name is sometimes abbreviated as Cantab. in post-nominals, a shortened form of Cantabrigiensis (an adjective derived from Cantabrigia, the Latinised form of Cambridge) Founded by scholars leaving Oxford Oxford (pronounced /ˈɒksfərd/ ) is a city, and the county town of Oxfordshire, in South East England. The city has a population of just under 165,000, with 151,000 living within the district boundary. The rivers Cherwell and Thames run through Oxford and meet south of the city centre. For a distance of some 10 miles (16 km) along the river, in after a dispute.
1218 United Kingdom of León Kingdom of León was an independent country situated in the northwest region of the Iberian Peninsula. It was founded in 910 A.D. when the Christian princes of Asturias along the northern coast of the peninsula shifted their main seat from Oviedo to the city of León. The Atlantic provinces became the Kingdom of Portugal in 1139, and the eastern, and Galicia Kingdom of Galicia is the name of two distinct entities within the Iberian Peninsula. In the first period, it was a barbarian monarchy ruled by the Suebi, a Germanic-speaking people who entered the Western Roman Empire in 406. Their kingdom corresponded to the Roman province of Gallaecia in the northwest corner of Iberia. This kingdom was finally Salamanca Salamanca is a city in western Spain, the capital of the province of Salamanca, which belongs to the autonomous community of Castile and Leon. The Old City was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1988, Spain Spain /ˈspeɪn/ (Spanish: España, pronounced [esˈpaɲa] ( listen)), or the Kingdom of Spain (Spanish: Reino de España), is a country located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula.[note 6] Its mainland is bordered to the south and east by the Mediterranean Sea except for a small land boundary with Gibraltar; to the north by France, University of Salamanca The University of Salamanca , located in the town of Salamanca, west of Madrid, is the oldest university in Spain (the older "Estudio general de Palencia", which soon later disappeared, never got the title of University), and one of the oldest in Europe. It was founded by Alfonso IX of León in 1218 as a "General School". This It is the oldest university in operation of Spain Spain /ˈspeɪn/ (Spanish: España, pronounced [esˈpaɲa] ( listen)), or the Kingdom of Spain (Spanish: Reino de España), is a country located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula.[note 6] Its mainland is bordered to the south and east by the Mediterranean Sea except for a small land boundary with Gibraltar; to the north by France,. Although there are records of the University granting degrees many years before (James Trager's People's Chronology sets its foundation date in 1134), it only received the Royal chart of foundation in 1218, making it possibly the fourth or even the third oldest European university in continuous operations. Having being excluded from the University in 1852 by the Spanish government, the Faculties of Theology and Canon Law became the Pontifical University of Salamanca The Pontifical University of Salamanca is an offshoot of the University of Salamanca in Salamanca, Spain, resulting from the Spanish government's dissolution of the University of Salamanca's faculties of Theology and Canon Law in 1854. Pope Pius XII later re-founded the faculties, establishing around them a different university run under the in 1940.
1222 Commune of Padua Padua is a city in the Veneto, northern Italy. It is the capital of the province of Padua and the economic and communications hub of the area. Padua's population is 212,500 (as of 2008[update]). The city is sometimes included, with Venice (Italian Venezia), in the Padua-Venice Metropolitan Area, having a population of c. 1,600,000 Padua Padua is a city in the Veneto, northern Italy. It is the capital of the province of Padua and the economic and communications hub of the area. Padua's population is 212,500 (as of 2008[update]). The city is sometimes included, with Venice (Italian Venezia), in the Padua-Venice Metropolitan Area, having a population of c. 1,600,000, Italy Italy /ˈɪtəli/ (Italian: Italia), officially the Italian Republic (Italian: Repubblica Italiana), is a country located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe and on the two largest islands in the Mediterranean Sea, Sicily and Sardinia. Italy shares its northern, Alpine boundary with France, Switzerland, Austria and Slovenia. The University of Padua The University of Padua , located in Padua, Italy, was founded in 1222. It is among the earliest of the universities and the second oldest in Italy. As of 2003 the university had approximately 65,000 students Founded by a large group of students and professors leaving University of Bologna The University of Bologna is the oldest continually operating degree-granting university in the world, the word 'university' being first used by this institution at its foundation. The true date of its founding is uncertain, but believed by most accounts to have been 1088. Since 2000, the University's motto has been Alma mater studiorum (Latin for for more academic freedom. Suspended in 1237–61, 1509–17, 1848–50.
1224 Kingdom of Sicily The Kingdom of Sicily was a state that existed in the south of Italy from its founding by Roger II in 1130 until 1816. It was a successor state of the County of Sicily, which had been founded in 1071 during the Norman conquest of southern Italy. The Kingdom covered not only the island of Sicily itself, but also the whole Mezzogiorno region of Naples Naples in Italy, is the capital of the region of Campania and of the province of Naples. The city is known for its rich history, art, culture and gastronomy, playing an important role throughout much of its existence; it is over 2,800 years old. Naples is located halfway between two volcanic areas, the volcano Mount Vesuvius and the Phlegraean, Italy Italy /ˈɪtəli/ (Italian: Italia), officially the Italian Republic (Italian: Repubblica Italiana), is a country located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe and on the two largest islands in the Mediterranean Sea, Sicily and Sardinia. Italy shares its northern, Alpine boundary with France, Switzerland, Austria and Slovenia. The University of Naples Federico II The University of Naples Federico II is a university located in Naples, Italy. It was founded in 1224 and is organized into 13 departments. It is the world's oldest state university and one of the oldest academic institutions in continuous operation. The university is named after its founder Frederick II Founded by Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II , of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, was an Italian pretender to the title of King of the Romans from 1212 and unopposed holder of that monarchy from 1215. As such, he was King of Germany, of Italy, and of Burgundy. He was also King of Sicily from his mother's inheritance. He was Holy Roman Emperor (Emperor of the Romans) from his papal. Closed in 1435–51, 1451–65, 1474–78, 1480–87, 1496–1507, 1527–29, 1531, 1547, 1562, 1585, etc.[4]
1240 Commune of Siena Siena, Italy University of Siena Originally called 'Studium Senese'. Closed in 1402–04 and 1808–14.
1290 Kingdom of Portugal Coimbra, Portugal University of Coimbra Founded in Lisbon as a Studium Generale, it was based there in 1290–1308, 1338–54, and 1377–1537.
1303 Papal States Rome, Italy University of Rome La Sapienza Founded by Pope Boniface VIII, but became a state university in 1935. According to the Catholic Encyclopaedia, the university "remained closed during the entire pontificate of Clement VII".
1308 Commune of Perugia Perugia, Italy University of Perugia Attested by the Bull of Pope Clement V.
1321 Republic of Florence Florence, Italy University of Florence moved to Pisa from 1473 to 1497 and from 1515 to 1860
1343 Republic of Pisa Pisa, Italy University of Pisa
1346 Crown of Castile and León Valladolid, Spain University of Valladolid Claims continuity with University of Palencia, founded in 1208 in Palencia. [5] Accepting that claim, it would be the oldest one on the Iberian Peninsula.
1348 Kingdom of Bohemia

Holy Roman Empire

 Prague, Czech Republic Charles University of Prague Three of four faculties closed in 1419, joined with Jesuit university and renamed Charles-Ferdinand University in 1652, split into German and Czech part in 1882, Czech branch closed during Nazi occupation (1939-1945), German branch closed in 1945.
1361 Lordship of Milan Pavia, Italy University of Pavia Closed for short periods during the Italian Wars, Napoleonic wars, and Revolutions of 1848.
1364 Kingdom of Poland Kraków, Poland Cracow Academy Development stalled early, re-established from 1400 onwards. Closed after the German occupation of Poland in 1939 but reopened clandestinely three years later.
1365 Holy Roman Empire Vienna, Austria University of Vienna Modelled on the University of Paris.
1367 Kingdom of Hungary Pécs, Hungary University of Pécs Founded by Louis I of Hungary, refounded in 1912
1386 Holy Roman Empire Heidelberg, Germany Ruprecht Karls University of Heidelberg Transferred to Neustadt an der Haardt in 1576–83, suppressed between 1632 and 1652, and moved out to Frankfurt am Main and elsewhere in 1689–1700.[6]
1391 Marquisate of Ferrara Ferrara, Italy University of Ferrara There was no teaching in 1794–1824 and 1848–50.[7]
1409 Holy Roman Empire Leipzig, Germany University of Leipzig Founded when German-speaking staff left Prague due to the Jan Hus crisis.
1410 Kingdom of Scotland St Andrews, Scotland, UK University of St Andrews Founded by a Papal Bull
1419 Holy Roman Empire Rostock, Germany University of Rostock During the Reformation, "the Catholic university of Rostock closed altogether and the closure was long enough to make the refounded body feel a new institution".[8]
1425 Holy Roman Empire Leuven, Belgium Catholic University of Leuven The oldest university in the Low Countries and oldest still existing Catholic university in the world. Transferred to Brussels in 1788, shut down by the French Republic in 1797, reopened in 1816, reorganized in 1834. Since 1968 split between the French-speaking Université Catholique de Louvain and the Dutch-speaking Katholieke Universiteit Leuven.
1434 Kingdom of Naples Catania, Italy University of Catania The oldest in Sicily.
1450 Crown of Aragon Barcelona, Spain University of Barcelona The University of Barcelona was closed by the Bourbon dynasty and transferred to Cervera after the War of the Spanish Succession (from 1714 until 1837). Plans to open the University of Cervera did not get underway until 1715 and it did not start its academic work until 1717.
1451 Kingdom of Scotland Glasgow, Scotland, UK University of Glasgow Founded by a Papal Bull
1456 Holy Roman Empire Greifswald, Germany University of Greifswald Teaching had started 1436. Closed down during the Protestant Reformation (1527–39).
1457 Holy Roman Empire Freiburg, Germany Albert Ludwigs University of Freiburg Temporarily transferred to Constance in 1686–98 and 1713–15.
1460 Holy Roman Empire Basel, Switzerland University of Basel
1472 Holy Roman Empire Munich, Germany Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich Founded in Ingolstadt in 1459, transferred to Landshut in 1800, moved to Munich in 1826.
1477 Holy Roman Empire Tübingen, Germany Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen
1479 Kalmar Union Copenhagen, Denmark University of Copenhagen
1495 Kingdom of Scotland Aberdeen, Scotland, UK University of Aberdeen King's College was founded in 1495 and Marischal College in 1593; they merged in 1860
1499 Kingdom of Spain Madrid, Spain Complutense University of Madrid Claims continuity with Estudio de Escuelas Generales de Alcalá, founded in 1293 in Alcalá de Henares
1499 Kingdom of Spain Valencia, Spain University of Valencia

Universities in the Islamic world

Further information: Madrasah Main entrance gate of Istanbul University on Beyazıt Square which was known as Forum Tauri in the Roman period. Istanbul University was founded in Istanbul in 1453.

The university as an autonomous, self-governing educational institution was preceded by the religious college/university, whose origins lie in the medieval Islamic world. The madrasah was a medieval Islamic college of law and theology, usually affiliated with a mosque. Philosophy and the secular sciences were often excluded from the curriculum, which was mainly focused on religion,[9] but this varied among different institutions, with some only choosing to teach the "religious sciences", and others teaching both the religious and the "secular sciences", usually logic, mathematics and philosophy. Some madrasahs further extended their curriculum to history, politics, ethics, music, metaphysics, medicine, astronomy and chemistry. In contrast to the madrasah, the Jami`ah was an institution that had individual faculties for different subjects and could house a number of madrasahs within it, with the most notable example being Al-Azhar University,[1] which had individual faculties[10] for a theological seminary, law and jurisprudence, Arabic grammar, astronomy, philosophy, and logic.[1] Professors at Al-Azhar also delivered lectures on medicine during the time of Saladin.[11] Another notable example was Mustansiriya University which offered courses dealing with philosophy, mathematics and the natural sciences.[12]

The madrasahs differed from medieval universities of Europe in several important respects, e.g., in that instruction was presented by a small group of teachers or even by a single teacher. The crucial difference is that the degree took the form of a license (ijazah) which "was signed in the name of the teacher, not of the madrasa".[13] In other words, "the authorization or licensing was done by each professor, not by a group or corporate body, much less by a disinterested or impersonal certifying body".[9] As a result, the concept of a degree from a specific university was replaced with multiple licenses from individual scholars working within the same religious college/university. Islamic universities that operated within this framework of multiple licenses include:

Year Current Location Name Other notes
859 Fes, Morocco University of Al-Karaouine Considered the oldest continuously-operating degree-granting university in the world by the Guinness Book of World Records.[14]
975 Cairo, Egypt Al-Azhar University A degree-granting Jam'iah ("university" in Arabic)[1] with individual faculties[10] for a general college and theological seminary, Law and Jurisprudence, Grammar, Astronomy, Philosophy, and Logic.[1] Professors at Al-Azhar also delivered lectures on Medicine during the time of Saladin.[11]
1065 Isfahan, Iran Nizamiyya One in Isfahan and another in Baghdad.
1233 Baghdad, Iraq Mustansiriya University Established by the Abbasid Caliph al-Mustansir in 1233, and, in addition to the religious subjects, offered courses dealing with philosophy, mathematics and the natural sciences.[12] The college/university was incorporated into the Baghdad University in 1962, and, in 1963, it was reopened as Al-Mustansiriya University.
1327 Timbuktu, Mali University of Sankore Foundation of the school was financed by Kankan Musa who paid for the Granada architect Abu Ishaq es Saheli from Egypt to build mosques and palaces throughout the empire.
1453 Istanbul, Turkey Istanbul University Founded as a philosophical and theological higher education institution, refounded on 23 July 1846 as a Darülfünun (House of Multiple Sciences), and refounded again on 1 August 1933 as a Üniversite. It has no direct religious affiliation with Islam.

Post-1500, oldest universities by country or region

The majority of European countries had universities by 1500. After 1500, universities began to spread to other countries all over the world:

Between the dispute, the honor is usually granted to University of Santo Tomas because it is the first one to attain University status, rather than basing on the year of institution.

See also

References and notes

  1. ^ a b c d e Alatas, Syed Farid (2006), "From Jami`ah to University: Multiculturalism and Christian–Muslim Dialogue", Current Sociology 54 (1): 112–32, doi:10.1177/0011392106058837
  2. ^ Makdisi, George (April-June 1989), "Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West", Journal of the American Oriental Society 109 (2): 175–182 [175–77], doi:10.2307/604423
  3. ^ A brief history of the University of Oxford, Oxford University
  4. ^ Grenler, Paul F. The Universities of the Italian Renaissance. John Hopkins University Press, 2004. Pages 43–44.
  5. ^ Tradition and Progress since the 13th century, University of Valladolid
  6. ^ See: Ridder-Symoens, Hilde de. A History of the University in Europe. Cambridge University Press, 2003. Page 83.
  7. ^ Ferrara, The new American cyclopædia, ed G. Ripley and C.A. Dana, 1859
  8. ^ Quoted from: Chadwick, Owen. The Early Reformation on the Continent. Oxford University Press, 2003. Page 257.
  9. ^ a b Toby E. Huff. The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China and the West. Cambridge University Press, 2003. Pages 77-78.
  10. ^ a b Goddard, Hugh (2000), A History of Christian-Muslim Relations, Edinburgh University Press, p. 99, ISBN 074861009X
  11. ^ a b Necipogulu, Gulru (1996), Muqarnas, Volume 13, Brill Publishers, p. 56, ISBN 9004106332
  12. ^ a b Dodge, Bayard (October-December 1964), "Reviewed Work(s): History of Islamic Origins of Western Education by Mehdi Nakosteen", Journal of the American Oriental Society 84 (4): 429–431 [430], doi:10.2307/596793
  13. ^ William J. Courtenay, Jürgen Miethke, David B. Priest. Universities and Schooling in Medieval Society. Brill Academic Publishers, 2000. ISBN 9004113517. Page 96.
  14. ^ The Guinness Book Of Records, Published 1998, ISBN 0-5535-7895-2, P.242
  15. ^ "http://www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/gen03/b03_02_j.html"

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